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Title：SocialityinAnimals

Socialinsectsrepresentthehighpointofinvertebrateevolution.Somespeciesliveincommunitiesofmillions，coordinatingtheirbuildingandforaging，theirreproduction，andtheiroffspringcare.Yetsocialityisfoundinonlyafewspeciesofinsects，andisrareamongvertebratesaswell：wildebeest（largeantelope）andlionsaretheexceptionratherthantherule.Nearlyallfish，amphibians，reptiles，birds，andmammalsaresolitary，exceptwhencourtingandmating.Birdsandmammalsusuallyreartheiryoung，butyear-roundfamilygroupsarealmostunknown，thoughtheyareintenselystudiedwheretheydoexist.Thesameistrueforinsects.

Weknow，orthinkweknow，thatsocialgroupsaregood.Wolvesarebetterpredatorswhentheyhuntinpacks，andpigeonsescapefromfalconsfarmoreoftenwhenfeedinginflocks.Groupbuildingprojects—thedamsbeaversbuildtoblockabodyofwaterthatprovidesthemwithrelativesafetyfrompredatorsandthelodgestheybuildforshelter，forinstance—canprovideahighlevelofprotectionandcomfort.Why，then，aresocialspeciessoveryrare？Infact，livingsociallypresentsinevitableproblemsthattranscendhabitatneedssothatonlywhenthesecostsareoffsetbycorrespondingbenefitsisgrouplivingaplus.

Themostobviouscostiscompetition.Allthemembersofaspeciessharethesamehabitat；whentheylivetogether，theyaretryingtoeatthesamefoodandoccupythesamenestingsites.Ingeneral，thereisfarlesscompetitionawayfromagroup，andselectionshouldfavoranyindividualwho（allthingsbeingequal）setsoffonitsown，leavingthemembersofitsgroupbehindtocompeteamongthemselvesforlimitedresources.Anotherdifficultyisthatconcentrationsofindividualsfacilitatediseaseandparasitetransmission.Onthewhole，socialanimalscarrymoreparasitesandspecies-specificdiseasesthandosolitaryanimals.Parasitesanddiseasesdiminishthestrengthandlimitthegrowthofanimals，andamonghighlysocialcreatures，epidemicscandevastatewholepopulations.Distemper（aviraldisease）hasbeenknowntowipeoutentirecoloniesofseals，forinstance.Sothepenaltyofsociallifeispotentiallyhuge.

Butinsomeinstances，thepayoffscanbeevengreater.Twohavealreadybeenmentioned：cooperativehuntinganddefensivegroups.Socialhuntingislikelytoevolvewherepreyistoolargetobetakenbyindividualsoperatingalone.Tocapturewildebeestsomemembersofagroupoflionsfollowtheirpreyandherdthemtowardotherslyinginambush.Inotherspecies，individualsforageorhuntsimultaneouslyandsharethefood.Vampirebatsthathavehadabadday，forinstance，arefedbymoresuccessfulmembersofthecommunity，buttheyareexpectedtoreturnthefavorinthefuture.Cooperationcaneveninvolvesharinginformationaboutthelocationoffood.Somecolonialbirds，suchasbankswallows，usethedeparturedirectionofasuccessfulforager（foodhunter）tolocateconcentrationsofprey.Informationtransfercanbeunintentionalthoughsomespeciesmakeuseofspecialassemblycallsorbehavior.

Cooperationingroupdefense，suchasweseeincirclesofmuskoxenorelephants，isquiterareamongvertebratesbutisprevalentamongthesocialinsects.Thestrategyofemployingmanyeyestowatchfordanger，ontheotherhand，iswidespreadinbirdsandmammals.Aherdofgazelles（smallantelope）isfarmorelikelytospotalurkinglionoraconcealedcheetahthanisaloneindividual，andatagreaterdistance.Infact，agroupentersintoakindoftime-sharingarrangementinwhichindividualantelopealternatebitingoffamouthfulofgrasswithaperiodoferectandwatchfulchewing.Alargergroupcanaffordmorebitesperindividualperminute，therebeingmoreeyestoscanfordanger.Forasmallantelopelivinginaforestwherevisibilityislimited，however，remaininghiddenisprobablyabetterbetthanassemblingintonoisyherds.

Amongthemillionsofspeciesofinsects，onlyafewthousandaresocial.ThoseraritiesaregenerallyconfinedtotermitesandHymenoptera.Alltermitesaresocial：theirdiet（cellulose）requiresthateachgenerationfeedaspecialkindofbacteriaorfungitothenextgenerationtoaidinitsdigestion.Ofthenumeroushymenopterans，somearesocial—includingallantsandafewbeesandwasps—butmanyaresolitary

Paragraph1

Socialinsectsrepresentthehighpointofinvertebrateevolution.Somespeciesliveincommunitiesofmillions，coordinatingtheirbuildingandforaging，theirreproduction，andtheiroffspringcare.Yetsocialityisfoundinonlyafewspeciesofinsects，andisrareamongvertebratesaswell：wildebeest（largeantelope）andlionsaretheexceptionratherthantherule.Nearlyallfish，amphibians，reptiles，birds，andmammalsaresolitary，exceptwhencourtingandmating.Birdsandmammalsusuallyreartheiryoung，butyear-roundfamilygroupsarealmostunknown，thoughtheyareintenselystudiedwheretheydoexist.Thesameistrueforinsects.

1.Accordingtoparagraph1，whichofthefollowingistrueofsocialityamonganimalspecies？

?Socialityismuchmorecommonamonginvertebratesthanamongvertebrates.

?Veryfewanimalsareconsideredsocialbecausemostspendthemajorityoftheirlivesalone.

?Ananimalgroupmustcontainmorethanonefamilyunitforthespeciestobeconsideredsocial.

?Allanimalsthatreartheiryoungareconsideredtobesocial.

Paragraph2

Weknow，orthinkweknow，thatsocialgroupsaregood.Wolvesarebetterpredatorswhentheyhuntinpacks，andpigeonsescapefromfalconsfarmoreoftenwhenfeedinginflocks.Groupbuildingprojects—thedamsbeaversbuildtoblockabodyofwaterthatprovidesthemwithrelativesafetyfrompredatorsandthelodgestheybuildforshelter，forinstance—canprovideahighlevelofprotectionandcomfort.Why，then，aresocialspeciessoveryrare？Infact，livingsociallypresentsinevitableproblemsthattranscendhabitatneedssothatonlywhenthesecostsareoffsetbycorrespondingbenefitsisgrouplivingaplus.

2.Whichofthesentencesbelowbestexpressestheessentialinformationinthehighlightedsentenceinthepassage？Incorrectchoiceschangethemeaninginimportantwaysorleaveoutessentialinformation.

?Grouplivingallowssomeanimalstotranscendproblemsofhabitat.

?Grouplivingisonlyadvantageouswhenbenefitsoutweighinevitableproblems.

?Problemsresultingfromlivingsociallyextendbeyondthehabitat.

?Itisdifficulttodeterminewhetherthebenefitsofsociallivingoffsetitscosts

Paragraph3

Themostobviouscostiscompetition.Allthemembersofaspeciessharethesamehabitat；whentheylivetogether，theyaretryingtoeatthesamefoodandoccupythesamenestingsites.Ingeneral，thereisfarlesscompetitionawayfromagroup，andselectionshouldfavoranyindividualwho（allthingsbeingequal）setsoffonitsown，leavingthemembersofitsgroupbehindtocompeteamongthemselvesforlimitedresources.Anotherdifficultyisthatconcentrationsofindividualsfacilitatediseaseandparasitetransmission.Onthewhole，socialanimalscarrymoreparasitesandspeciesspecificdiseasesthandosolitaryanimals.Parasitesanddiseasesdiminishthestrengthandlimitthegrowthofanimals，andamonghighlysocialcreatures，epidemicscandevastatewholepopulations.Distemper（aviraldisease）hasbeenknowntowipeoutentirecoloniesofseals，forinstance.Sothepenaltyofsociallifeispotentiallyhuge.

3.Whatdoesparagraph3sayabouttherelationshipbetweennaturalselectionandanimalsthatliveapartfromothermembersoftheirspecies？

?Naturalselectiondoesnotfavorlivingapartbecauseindividualsareunabletoobtainresourcesequaltothoseofgroupmembers.

?Naturalselectiondoesnotfavorlivingapartbecauseoftheintensecompetitionforresourcesamongindividualsapartfromagroup.

?Naturalselectionfavorslivingapartbecauseindividualsareunlikelytoattracttheattentionofpredators.

?Naturalselectionfavorslivingapartbecausegrouplivingincreasescompetitionforlimitedresourcesoffoodandnestingsites.

4.Theword＂devastate＂inthepassageisclosestinmeaningto

?alter

?spreadto

?destroy

?involve

5.Inparagraph3，whydoestheauthormentiondistemperanditseffectonseals？

?Toexplainwhysocialityisnowrelativelyrareinseals?

Toprovethatparasitespreventanimalsfromgrowinghealthyandstrong

?Toshowhoweasilysocialanimalstransmitpotentiallydeadlydiseases

?Toprovideanexampleofaspecies-specificdiseasethataffectssolitaryanimals

标题：社会性的动物

群居昆虫代表了无脊椎动物进化的高潮。一些物种生活在数以百万计的群体中，协调它们的建筑和觅食、繁殖和后代的照料。然而，只有少数种类的昆虫存在社会性，而且在脊椎动物中也很罕见：羚羊（大羚羊）和狮子是例外，而不是规则。几乎所有的鱼、两栖动物、爬行动物、鸟类和哺乳动物都是孤独的，除非是在求爱和交配的时候。鸟类和哺乳动物通常会养育它们的幼仔，但一年四季的家庭几乎是不为人知的，尽管它们的研究对象确实存在。昆虫也是如此。

我们知道，或者认为我们知道，社会群体是好的。狼是更好的捕食者，当它们成群猎食时，鸽子会从猎鹰中逃脱，更多时候是成群觅食。团体建筑工程——筑坝者建造水坝来阻挡水体，使它们相对安全，免受掠食者和他们为庇护所所建的小屋的保护，例如，可以提供高水平的保护和舒适。那么，为什么社会物种如此稀有呢？事实上，在社会生活中，生活中必然会出现超越生境需求的问题，因此只有当这些成本被相应的利益抵消时，才会有一群人活得更久。

最明显的代价就是竞争。一个物种的所有成员都有相同的栖息地；当它们生活在一起时，它们会尝试吃同样的食物，并占据相同的巢穴。总的来说，一个群体的竞争要少得多，而选择应该有利于任何一个人（所有的事物都是平等的）自己出发，让集团的成员在有限的资源中相互竞争。另一个困难是个体的浓度促进了疾病和寄生虫的传播。总的来说，社会动物比独居动物携带更多的寄生虫和物种特异性疾病。寄生虫和疾病削弱了动物的力量，限制了动物的生长，在高度社会化的生物中，流行病会毁灭整个种群。犬瘟热（一种病毒性疾病）已经被认为可以消灭所有的海豹群体，例如。因此，社会生活的惩罚可能是巨大的。

但在某些情况下，回报可能更大。其中有两个已经被提及：合作狩猎和防御团体。社会狩猎很可能会进化，因为猎物太大而不能单独行动。为了捕获角马，一些狮子跟随它们的猎物，把它们赶到埋伏的地方。在其他物种中，个体觅食或同时捕食并分享食物。例如，那些日子过得很糟糕的吸血蝙蝠，会被更成功的社区成员喂养，但他们在未来会得到回报。合作甚至可以分享有关食物位置的信息。一些殖民地的鸟类，如河岸燕子，利用一个成功的觅食者（食物猎人）的离开方向来定位猎物的浓度。信息传递可以是无意的，尽管有些物种利用特殊的集合调用或行为。

集体防御的合作，如我们在麝牛或大象的圈子里看到的，在脊椎动物中很少见，但在群居昆虫中很普遍。另一方面，用许多眼睛来观察危险的策略在鸟类和哺乳动物中很普遍。一群瞪羚（小羚羊）更有可能发现潜伏的狮子或隐藏的猎豹，而不是一个单独的个体，而且距离更远。事实上，一个群体进入了一种分时的安排，在这种安排中，每只羚羊都在不停地咬着一口草，一段时间的直立和警惕的咀嚼。一个更大的群体每分钟可以承受更多的叮咬，有更多的眼睛去扫描危险。然而，对于生活在森林中能见度有限的小羚羊来说，隐藏起来可能比聚集在喧闹的羊群中要好得多。

在几百万种昆虫中，只有几千种是社会性昆虫。这些稀有性一般局限于白蚁和膜翅目昆虫。所有白蚁都是社会性的：它们的饮食（纤维素）要求每一代都为下一代提供一种特殊的细菌或真菌以帮助消化。在众多的膜翅类动物中，有些是社会性的，包括所有的蚂蚁和一些蜜蜂和黄蜂，但许多都是独居的。

本条第一款

群居昆虫代表了无脊椎动物进化的高潮。一些物种生活在数以百万计的群体中，协调它们的建筑和觅食、繁殖和后代的照料。然而，只有少数种类的昆虫存在社会性，而且在脊椎动物中也很罕见：羚羊（大羚羊）和狮子是例外，而不是规则。几乎所有的鱼、两栖动物、爬行动物、鸟类和哺乳动物都是孤独的，除非是在求爱和交配的时候。